Towards a Slumdweller's Theology

Course Outline

Viv Grigg

December 1994

(Revision 14)

1. Theological Presuppositions

   The Nature of The Word

   1. The Nature of Truth
      1. See notes in A Biblical Framework of Development

         The Nature of Theologizing

   2. The God of History, the God of Active Intervention
      1. Story-Telling Theologies of the Poor
         1. The Parable Approach of Jesus
         2. The Proverbs of Jesus
         3. Popular "Narrative Theology" of Theologians
      2. Theology from the Bottom Up
         1. God incarnating among the poor
         2. God responsive to needy and humble
      3. Action-Oriented Theology of the Poor
         1. The Obedience Demand in Jesus Theology
      4. Growth - Oriented Theology of the Poor
         1. God Incarnating as an Apostle
         2. Theologies Emerged by Apostolic Movements
   3. The Relationship of the Word and Socio-Economic Realities
      1. Realities in Jesus Day
      2. Realities in the Present
   4. Rejection of Liberation Theology as Starting Point
      1. Rejection of Liberation Theologies in General
         1. An Educated Elite Theology vs. Latin church of poor (Pentecostalism)
         2. Basis of Evaluation
            1. Will it uplift the poor?

               Responsibility is to protect flock not destroy them.

            2. To what extent is it truthful to:
               1. realities of poverty?
               2. truths of the scriptures?
         3. Lack of Basis in Biblical Authority
            1. Hermeneutic Presuppositions

               Not premised on submission to authority of word

               Catholic theologies generated from Liberal Protestant influence

               Evangelical theology of poverty will begin with the word (Biblical Theology), not with other theologians. It will be a reflection on the realities and the word. It will also be a reflection on philosophies, but a critical judgment of those philosophies in the light of these two sources of truth.

            2. Why the curiosity by evangelical theologians?
               1. An evangelical vacuum related to poverty, absence of reality
               2. Absence of suffering, experience of oppression among theologians
            3. Using Scripture (vs. Submission to Scripture)
               1. To Justify Marxist Analyses (submission to Marxist analysis)
               2. Using Scripture to Affirm Marxist Responses
      2. Some Positive Aspects of Liberation Theology
         1. Poor focused
         2. Incarnational Rhetoric (traditional Catholic Theology)
         3. Deals with Realities of Oppression
         4. Liberation is a Theme (not the central one) of the Scriptures.

            Six Fulcrum for a Holistic Missions Theology

   5. Creation
   6. Prophets
   7. Incarnation
   8. The Cross and Resurrection
   9. The Spirit and the Church
   10. The Consummation of Time
   11. Integration
       1. Starting Points
          1. Leading to Diverse Responses
          2. Leading to Strategic Specialization
       2. Dealing with Theological Diversity
          1. Maximal Acceptance in Christ
          2. Limits to Acceptance
             1. Truth
             2. Effectiveness
             3. Strategic Value
       3. Reductionism in Strategy yet Urban Poor Theological Diversity
          1. True Truth, Central Truths, Centered Truth
          2. Balance of Truths = Godly Wisdom
          3. Strategic Reductionism within Theological Diversity
2. Theological Integration: The Kingdom

   From Genesis to Revelation

   1. Read A Biblical Framework of Development pp. 2- 7
   1. Kingdom Preexistent (Gen. 1-4)
      1. The Nature of God
      2. The Mandate to Manage
      3. Am I My Brother's Keeper?
   2. The Interventive Kingdom (O.T.)
   3. The Invading Kingdom (N.T. Present)
      1. Read Kingdom Economics p 13,14
   4. The Fulfilled Kingdom (N.T. Future)

      The Kingdom and Mission

   5. Background: Views of Protestant Mission
      1. Two Ways of Doing Mission
      2. Liberalism
      3. Its Daughter - Liberation Theology
      4. Evangelical Perspectives
   6. Biblical Analysis
      1. Biblical Approaches
      2. Focus of Mission
      3. Socio-Economic Context
      4. Style - Manner of Preachers
      5. Results
      6. End Goal
      1. Church Growth Mission Foci
      2. The Focus of Kingdom Activity
      3. The Socio-Economic Impact of the Kingdom
      4. Social, Economic and Spiritual Relationships

         Covenant as Integrative Theme

   7. God-Man in the Covenants
   8. Covenants with Society
   9. Covenants and Land
   10. Extremism in Covenant Theology
       1. Tendency to interpret all theology within certain constructs

          Discontinuity in Jesus

       1. Read Grigg, The Economic Discipleship of Jesus
   11. Incarnation as Discontinuity
   12. His Conditions of Discipleship Affect the Social-Economic Mandate
   13. Modification, Rejection or Continuity of the Management of Creation?
   14. A New Formulation of Holism
   15. Jesus' balance In Dealing with the Individual and Social Issues
       1. Jesus is the Answer
       1. Read Companion to the Poor Chap 5
          1. Church History Perspectives on "Private" Christianity
             1. Early Responses to Caesar
             2. Holism in Middle Ages
             3. Effect of the Enlightenment
       2. Faith in the City p50

          Kingdom Relationships to Culture

       3. Read Cry, chap 12.
   16. Kingdom In, over or against Society
   17. Kingdom Present and future
   18. Proclaiming as focus of Kingdom Activity
       1. Luke 4:18 as Content of Commission
       2. Matt. 28:18-20 as Extent of Commission
       3. "The chuch, in Biblical imagery, is the bride of Christ, and its proper service is to proclaijm the revolution of the coming Kingdom, by which all existing establishments and revolutionary would be establishments are brought under divine promise and judgement." Richard John Neuhaus in "For the QWORld , Against the WOrld." in Schaeffer.
   19. Holism as Context of Proclamation
   20. Holy Spirit dynamics in Kingdom Activity
       1. Who brings the Kingdom - God or Man?
       2. Are we to create the conditions.

          Biblical Starting Points for Theologies of the City

       1. Browse Augustine, City of God
       2. Browse Ellul, Jacques, The Meaning of the City
       3. Read Conn, Harvey
       4. Read Lim, David
       5. Weber, Max
          1958(21) The City. N.Y: The Free Press.
          The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism tr. Talcott Parsons. Unwin:London
          1. Genesis: The Nature of an Urbanizing God
          2. Genesis 4,11: The City in Rebellion
          3. The Monarchy: Visions of A Holy City
          4. Nehemiah: Building Cities
          5. The Prophets: Response to Oppression in the City
          6. Exodus: The Development of Structures
          7. Acts: Urban-Rural Mission
          8. The Pauline Epistles: Jesus, Integrator of Mega-Cities
          9. Revelations: A Tale of Two Cities
          10. Revelations 21,22: The Holy City as Basis of Urban Hope
3. Urban Poor People's Context

   The Urban Context - Sociological and Biblical Analysis.

   1. The nature of urbanization
      1. Read Cry Chap 1 The City Beckons
      2. Read Santos, Milton
         1979 The Shared Space tr. from Portuguese edition (1975) by Chris Gerry. Methuen:London and New York. 266 pp.
         1. Squatters!
         2. The Extent of the Squatter Areas
         3. Most Responsive International Cultural Bloc
         4. Where Did Such Growth Come From?
         5. Underdevelopment - the Historical Context
         6. High Urbanization versus Low Industrialization
         7. Pressures in the Provinces - Push Factors
         8. Attractions in the Cities - Pull Factors
         9. Who are the Migrants?
         10. The Biblical Response
   2. Transitional phases in that urbanization
   3. A biblical theology of urbanization

      The Impact of the Urban Church

   4. The Frontier That Moved
      1. Read Cry Chap 2
         1. Hardly a Church, Rarely a Pastor, Seldom a Missionary
         2. The Great Misconnection
         3. Proposal - Protestant Missions With Vows of Poverty
         4. An Opportunity Lost?
   5. The Church in the Slums
      1. Read Cry Chap 6: Where Are the Churches of the Poor?
      2. Read Cry Chap 7: From Latin Growth To Asian Need
         1. Asian Cities - Mission Target
         2. African and Muslim Cities
         3. Latin American Cities - Missions Source
         4. Churches of the Poor, for the Poor, by the Poor
         5. Movements in Latin America - Nothing in Asia
         6. Next Phase - Latin Poor Missions to Asia
   6. Biblical Reflection: How Much Would God Do?

      Causes of Poverty - Sociological and Biblical Analysis.

   7. Sociological Analysis of the Types of Poverty in the Slums
      1. Read Cry Chap 3: The Migrant Poor - Who Are We?
         1. The Task Ahead
         2. Some Levels of Urban Poverty
         3. Reachable Communities of Urban Poor
         4. Responsiveness
         5. Lima - Desert Capital
         6. Lack of Housing - Fundamental Definition
         7. Stratification of Squatter and Slum Poverty
         8. Government Responses to Housing Needs
         9. Squatter Economics
            1. Possessions of the Poor
            2. Nutrition of the Poor
            3. Employment in the Slums
            4. The Financial Mechanisms of the Squatter Areas
         10. Comparing Levels of Poverty
   8. Theories About American poverty
      1. Read What Should We Do About the Poor? from Wall Street Journal, Tuesday April 14, 1992
      2. Browse Harrington, Micheal, The Other America:Poverty in the United States Penguin, 1965
      3. Read Grant, George Bringing in the Sheaves
      4. Browse Rossi, Peter, Down and Out in America
      5. Read "Generational Shift of Black Leaders" in The Christain Science Monitor, Monday March 8, 1993.
      6. Read Craig Ellison, Healing for the City
         1. What Should We Do About the Poor?
            1. The question implies a Great Debate
               1. Is it an "Us and Them"
               2. Should we not identify with the poor who are victims of an unjust society?
               3. Or on the other side what can we do about the poor? little or nothing.
            2. Liberals at a disadvantage
               1. In the last 30 years $trillions have been spent on the poor
               2. Yet there are more people than ever.
               3. A compassion fatigue
            3. Statistics
               1. Official poverty line is a cash income of $12,675 for a family of four or $10,419 for a family of three.
               2. Yet 38% own their own homes (median value of these is $39,200, half a million of these poor own homes valued over $100,000(Heritage Foundation report)
               3. poor people on average consume the same level as middle class folks, and poor children eat more meat and protein than do the middle class.
               4. The government data shows that poor people spend $1.94 for every $1 reported income. This is because it does not include gifts in kind
               5. The government spends $11,120 on evry "poor" family in America.
               6. most "poor" are better housed, better fed and own more personal property than the average U.S. citizen throughout most of this century.
         2. Definitions
            1. Those who have been ommitted from progress an forgotten
            2. The tremendous increse in workng wives has been an expensive way to increase income, paid for by the impoverishment of home life, of children who receive less care, love and supervision. the next generation may have to pay the bill for the extra money that was gained (Harrington 174).
            3. The main sub-cultures of poverty are the aged, the agricultural workers and the industrial rejects.
            4. The actual cut-off point for the aged is not 65. Among the unskilled worker it is between forty and fifty.. If laid off at this age his chance of finding a job at the old pay level are less. There are a good many people who become poor after significant working lives (Harrington 182).
            5. The majority of the poor are white, a declining number are rural, and other major groups arre the agedd, the migrant worker, the industrial rejects, children, families with a female head, peoleof low education. These various characteristics tend to cluster together.
         3. African-American Poverty
            1. Racism is integrated into the structure of American society. Some consider that given time, the Negros will rise in society like the Irish, the Jews, the Italians... But this misses tow facts:the Negro is colored which no other group has faced, and the Negro is an internal migrant who will face racism wherever he goes.
            2. American cities were the result of economic formation rather than through urban planning. There were no plans for racial diversity.
            3. Black migration. 80% were rural particularly in the South before World War II. Now 80% are in the inner city. - like an urban plantation.
            4. Cities are not meling pots for blacks. They are more like salad bowls. We get along together but keep our own identity. The pastors are the key to instructing us how to get along.
            5. The central cities are diminishing in resources because of satellite city development, but the poor continue to come.
            6. The individual cannot break out of this cycle of poverty, nor can the group, for it lacks the social energy and political strength to turn its misery into a cause. Only the larger society, with its help and resources can make it possible for these people to help themselves.
            7. Violence
               1. Black on black violence now kills more in one year than died in all the history of lynching (Jesse Jackson quoted in Christian Science Monitor Weds Nov 3, 1993)
            8. A Generational Shift of Black Leaders
               1. The role of pastor was the only one open to past generations as a leader in the black community. "Whereas earler black leaders came heavily from churches today many leaders are coming from the business and the professions as blacks have found greater opportunity in those fields. The leadershipspectrum has bradened. ....incorporation is still the goal.
            9. Racial Reconciliation
         4. The Homeless
            1. People need a handrail not a saety net.
            2. The Inner City Mission as a Response
               1. The history of their formation.
         5. The Migrant Poor
            1. U.S. Hispanics
               1. Balancing assimilation and preservation of their cultural heritage.
               2. There has been a major shift as America has moved into an information economy and as labor intensive work has declined. Recent immigrants are earning far less, after arriving than did their counterparts of 10 and 20 years ago.
         6. The Aged
         7. The Single Mother
            1. A single mother cannot earn enough in a minimum wage job to support even one child.
   9. Theories of Slum Emergence
      1. Read Cry Chap 4: Who Made Us Poor?
         1. From Facts to Reasons Why
         2. Squatters - Poor of the City or City of the Poor?
         3. Perspectives on Squatters, Poverty, and Cities
         4. The Acculturation Theme
         5. Poor Peoples' Perspective
         6. Turner's Self-Improvement Model
         7. Slums as a Problem
         8. Class Conflict and Social Dualism
         9. Political Participation
            1. Marginality
            2. Modernization and Marginality
         10. Economic Dualism
         11. Implications for Slum Theology
   10. International Causes of Urban Poverty
       1. Read Cry Chap 5: International Causes of Urban Poverty
       2. Browse Myrdal, Gunnar
          1968 Asian Drama: An Inquiry into the Poverty of the Nations. Twentieth Century Fund (abridged edition by Vintage Books in 1971)
       3. Browse Bauer, P.T.
          1981 "Western Guilt and Third World Poverty." In Is Capitalism Christian, Franky Schaeffer, ed.
          1. Macro-Economic Theories
             1. 29 Causes of Poverty (Gunnar Myrdal)
                1. Population Increase
                   1. Does Not Cause Poverty
                   2. Does not Cause Overcrowding
                   3. Increases Net Productivity
                   4. Increases Net Wealth and Per Capita Wealth.
             2. Colonialism: Trickle Down vs Dependency Theories
                1. The theory:

                   Poverty in the Third World is the result of colonial looting in the past and economic colonialism in the present.

                2. The issue:

                   Is foreign investment a drain on existing resources in Third World countries or has it in fact expanded opportunities and raised incomes?

                3. Concept of exploitation by West

                   Bauer tells some interesting anecdotes reflecting on a pamphlet from a student group at Oxford on the subject of the moral obligation of the West to the Third World: "We took the rubber from Malaya, the tea from India, raw materials from all over the world and gave almost nothing in return." He says: This is nearly the opposite of the truth as one can find. The British took rubber to Malaya and the tea to India. There were no rubber trees in Malaya or anywhere else in Asia (as suggested by their botanical name Hevea brazilienses) until about one hundred years ago, when the British took the first rubber seeds there out of the Amazon jungle. From these sprang the huge rubber industry - now very largely Asian-owned. Tea-plants were brought to India somewhat earlier; their origin is shown in the botanical name Camilla sinensis, as well as in the phrase "all the tea in China."

                4. Positive Benefits of Western contacts

                   Historically benefits have spread from richer to poorer areas.

                   It is behind the large increase in life expectation in the third world. Disease have been controlled. Medical ideas and hygiene have been introduced, clean water and sewerage,

                   Public security, law and order, roads, railways, man-made ports formal education.

                   Virtual elimination of the slave trade in Africa and the Middle East.

                   The most prosperous areas in the third world are those with the most commercial contacts with the West. It has been the principal agent for prosperity.

                   Concept of sustained, steady material progress is a Western concept.

                   Centralized governmental planning - a negative contribution to some extent.

                5. Dependency Theories - negative impact of contact with the West

                   Continuation of colonial oppression of minorities.

                   Move from political colonialism to economic and cultural imperialism through debt repayment problems. A continual transfer of funds from poorer to richer centers of power. This is not in itself unjust, but levels of injustice exist in the size of usury and interest demanded. Inability to repay debts is often related to mismanagement more than exploitation. the loans were given as capital with reasonable interest. the debts are often the result of wasteful use of the capital or inappropriate monetary or fiscal policies.

                   Manipulation of international trade.

                   The demonstration effect. Import of consumer goods. Results in import replacement to a significant extent. Nevertheless it does not as rapidly increase the means of production as it does increasing levels of consumption.

                   There is a brain drain. It is insignificant in its effect on material advance compared to the levels of migration caused by internal warfare, ethnic oppression and the governmental restrictions on foreign expertise.

                   A false aspect of the rhetoric of dependency implies that any prosperity of some group means that others have been exploited. In Marxist ideology, any return on private capital implies exploitation. In the literature, a proletariat is exploited by definition, and is poor because it is exploited.

                   However the prosperity of the West was not the result of colonialism. It was generated by its own peoples. Switzerland never had colonies. The income of well-to -do people do not necessarily come from exploitation. the rich do not owe the poor because they are poor.

                   Thus the Third World has been described as the underprivileged and deprived.

                   The poverty of the poorest nations tends to increase the less they are linked to Western contacts. Afghanistan, Tibet, Nepal;, Liberia, Ethiopia (only 6 years under Italian rule) never were colonized.

             3. Import Substitution
             4. Export of Raw Materials and Industrial Goods
             5. The Mediating Role of the Banks
             6. The Role of the Government
             7. A New International Order
          2. Macro-Economic Development and the Extent of the Slums
          3. A Biblical Response to Urban Oppression
             1. Response to Urbanization - A Just Gradient
          4. Transitional Phase or Permanent?
          5. The Legal Conundrum

             Universals of the Religion of the Urban Poor.

       4. Read Cry Chap 16, An Insider's Perspective,
       5. Read Cry Chap 15, Squatter Culture and the Church
4. Biblical Perspectives on Poverty
   1. Laussanne Occasional Papers #22 The Urban Poor
   2. Read Companion to the Poor chap 3

      The Kingdom of God and the Poor

   1. The Centrality of the Poor (Luke 4:18).
   2. Old Testament Word Study on Causes and Responses
      1. Calamity
      2. Personal Sins
      3. Oppression

         The Poor and Poverty in the Message of Jesus

   3. Is Poverty Blessed?
   4. Jesus the Poor One as Model
   5. The Responsibility of the Rich
      1. The Call to the Rich to Follow Jesus Among the Poor

         The Poor and Poverty in the Church of the First Century

      1. Browse Julio de Santa Ana Good News To the Poor
   6. The Jerusalem Community
      1. The Context
         1. Roman Empire
         2. The rich:
            1. owned property
            2. gave rights to slaves, to freedom, to independence and power
         3. The poor:
            1. owned no land
            2. worked for daily bread
         4. Slaves were lower yet
      2. The Makeup of the Community
         1. Poverty was a negative term (cf. Jewish; pious poor).
         2. The church attracted the poor (1 Cor. 1:26-31)
            1. Not primarily powerful people
         3. Though many priests believed
            1. Though the rich sold their possessions and gave...
         4. Primarily the "pious poor"
         5. Common sharing
            1. Not common ownership
            2. but redistribution through a common fund
            3. Material sharing was an expression of a spiritual fellowship
            4. i.e. the spiritual precedes the sharing, the sharing perfects the spiritual.
            5. a reflection of a communal solidarity
            6. goods are not shared to make oneself poor (an ideal), but to vanquish and eradicate poverty.
            7. Voluntary sharing (Acts 5:1-11).

               "as any had need" means it was not a denial of the need of possessions or property.

            8. properties were maintained (e.g. the mother of John Mark (Acts 12:12).
            9. In later centuries men took the specific practices as models of abstract ideals which lead to "love communism".
         6. Relationship to Jubilee.
            1. It appears that the early church understood the coming of the Kingdom as the coming of the Jubilee.
            2. This explains the motivation behind such a dramatic sharing of goods across such a large grouping of people.

   7. Paul's Teaching on Poverty and The Poor
      1. Not a poor man, nor one focused on the poor as with Jesus or James, yet committed to remembering the poor (Gal 2:10), understanding that God has chosen the weak (1 Cor. 1:18-30), and calling on people to imitate Christ's humility (Phil. 2:5-8). he also makes specific provision in church structure for the orphans and widows.
      2. Not opposed to wealth. The love of money is the root of all evil (1 Timothy 6:17-19), but wealth can be used for good, and he sees the effect of Christ in people as being economic wealth. On the other hand he equates greed with idolatry (Eph. 5:5), and gives as a qualification of elders that they not be greedy (Titus 1:7) or miserly (1 Tim. 3,2,3). he comes down with a center on a life of contentment (1 Timothy 3:3-8).
      3. He himself chose a life of sacrificial simplicity when he could have lived a relatively wealthy life even at the end he seemed to have enough assets to live in Rome in a house "at his own expense". i.e. probably had property back in Antioch that enabled him to be independently wealthy. He upholds Christ as such a model of economic sacrifice (II Cor. 8:9).
      4. His accent in community was on the body of Christ, not so much on the community of goods. He did not put forth the Jerusalem community as a model, but did teach on equality and caring for each other. In a sense he extended the Jerusalem model to networks of churches internationally (11 Corinthians 8,9). this was so important as to take up two years of his life collecting for the famine- stricken community in Jerusalem.
      5. He strongly emphasizes work, laboring to support himself at times as a model(1 Cor 9:12) and teaching that one should meet his own needs and others through his work (1 Thes 4:12).
      6. He continues the heritage of the Old Testament on the support of workers
   8. James, Brother of Jesus, Apostle of Equal Dealings and Justice
      1. James deals with the relationship of rich and poor.

         see attached quotes from Julio de Santa Ana p 50

   9. The Early Church Fathers
      1. The Context

         The next two Centuries saw an increasing disparity of social classes, rich and poor come into the church. Mission was from the powerless to the powerful

      2. The Shepherd of Hermas - poverty is an Evil

         "He who is in need and poverty in his daily life is in great torment and anxiety. Thus he who frees the soul of such a man from his great need attains great joy for himself."

         1. Lack of solidarity (identification)
            1. is unfaithfulness to the Lord
            2. is lack of brotherly love
            3. means the poor are not redeemed
            4. means we are not redeemed
         2. Materialism
            1. means risking a loss of faith
            2. in persecution we may choose wealth instead of suffering
            3. means we become submerged in business dealings, wealth, friendships with the world
            4. means we become incapable of spiritual understanding.
            5. The rich cannot be useful till their wealth is taken away.
            6. There is still an awareness from the time of Jesus that it is either faith or wealth.
   10. Didache

       (written in Syria at the turn of the 2nd Century)

       1. The 3 dangers of wealth or poverty
          1. over-ambition to have what is not ours
          2. excessive accumulation of possessions can only be achieved through dissension, hate and injustice
          3. the influence of the world
          1. the justice of God and the expression of his love are rejected
             1. thus it is wiser to take the way of poverty
             2. skepticism
             3. When hopes are not fulfilled, and the justice of the Kingdom not triumphant, the poor may not give up hope.
   11. The Rich Enter the Church

       It is only at the time of Clement of Rome that the issue arises "Can the rich be saved and not give up their wealth?" up to this point it had always been normative.

       1. He proposes that it is the spirit of renouncing that counts but that wealth can be used for charitable purposes. This is the beginning of the heresies that destroyed the church in the middle ages and remain in effect until today.
       2. Tertullian on the other hand adopts a more extreme opposite view
          1. renunciation now becomes
          2. a demand of obedience
          3. from a command of love
          4. and an ascetic idea
       3. Poverty
          1. becomes an obligation
          2. not just from the depths of the heart
          3. lost dimension of grace and freedom
          4. This may be in reaction to the realities of the time. After the faithful met, the rich prepared a common table.
   12. The Synthesis of the Late Second Century
       1. The context: the gospel became the gospel of the powerful and the message became distorted.
       2. The Problem;
          1. Poverty was considered evil (socially, theologically and spiritually)

             but the scriptures were not applied to the rich and powerful.

          2. James admonitions, Jesus existential demands were ignored.
          3. Comfort was permitted
          4. Private property was normal
          5. Brotherly charity was practiced
          6. But not to eradicate poverty
          7. Rather to educate people in a spirit of love
          8. Service to the poor did not lead to solidarity with the poor

             people gave and remained in comfort

          9. This resulted in two extremes
          10. Ordinary Christianity accommodating to the demands of faith and life around
          11. Monasticism
       3. a radical response
          1. with no concessions to the context
          2. Both practiced charity but not social reform

             i.e. to eradicate poverty

          3. or create a community of equals
          4. Modeling did not affect imperial legislation
          5. The bishops were supposed to feed the poor daily
          6. the clergy were to be poor, as an example of self-sacrifice

   13. Prophets of the Church in the Time of Constantine
       1. The Context

          The radical opposition between church and culture had lead to accommodation.

          1. This lead prophets to emerge who reaffirmed the gospel demands concerning justice and care for the poor
       2. Ambrose
          1. care for the rich who have become poor, for prisoners
          2. practice discernment of impostors and swindlers
          3. ignore social differences
       3. St. Basil

          A hermit theologian who created a whole complex of charitable welfare institutions. There arose a whole new city consisting of hostels, alms houses and hospitals for infectious diseases. the bishop himself took up residence there and organized the free meals.

          He saw wealth as a "good to be administered and not a source of enjoyment." The error lies in covetousness

          Covetousness leads to evil which leads to injustice (1 Timothy 6:10)

          He criticizes irresponsible economic growth ( Luke 12:16-21) (de Sta. Ana 69).

          He saw poverty as an evil not as an ideal

          The value of wealth depends on how far it is applied to helping the needy.

          The greater a man's wealth , the less perfect his charity.
          "Though you have not killed, like you say, nor committed adultery, nor stolen, nor borne false witness, you make all of this useless unless you add the only thing which can allow you to enter the Kingdom. Clearly you are far from that requirement (charity) and you are mistaken in claiming that you love your neighbor as yourself. If it is true that you have kept the law of charity from your childhood, as you claim, and that t you have done as much for others as for yourself, then where does all your wealth come from? care for the poor absorbs all available resources..." (quoted in de Sta. Ana 73).

       4. St. Augustine on the Duty of the Rich

       5. Conclusions: The Road to Overcoming Poverty(de Sta. Ana)

          Accumulating wealth hurts the poor and so hurts Jesus

          The poor cannot overcome by dependence on the wealthy. It must be through self-reliance

          The solution is in true solidarity, community, mercy, not through extreme sacrifice and only verbal agreement to seek the common good.

          The struggle to eradicate poverty had ceased to exist, and was replaced by ways of alleviating the sufferings of the poor, the victims of injustice, rather than to present the radical witness to the justice of God.

          Historical Responses By The Western Church in the Late Middle Ages

   14. Context

       It was a time of population growth, development of crafts, industries, textiles, communities. The church preached charity but ignored reforms needed in society. this resulted in a time of protest against the prevailing social, economic, and political order of the times.

       The church remained captive to the structures of mediaeval power which prevented it from making a concrete response to the challenges of the poor. The orientation of charity as assistance to the suffering was maintained with orphanages, hospitals, schools etc.

   15. Precursors

       The Celtic Monks - powerless monks who converted Northern Europe.

   16. Itinerant Movements
       1. Charismatic Leaders
          1. St. Francis of Assisi
          2. St. Domic
          3. Peter Valdes
          4. (Ignatius of Loyola)

             " I heard from our great moulder of men, Ignatius, that the toughest material he had ever handled was the young man Francis Xavier in the earler stages. God, however has made better use of him than any other man of our time ... to conquer nearly a fourth part of the world to the cross of His Son.

             " He was a young, gallant and noble Basque, well versed inphilosophy. He thought little of Ignatious who depended on charity to keep body and soul together. He would not break off his career of liberal arts and theology he was pursueing. He never met Ignatius without making sport of his his designs and burning his friends into a joke... But Ignatius learned to humor him and win him with such tact and patience that he made him the immortal apostle of the Indies ...(see notes)

       2. Similarities

          Poverty (not as an ideal, but as a way of sharing for the advance of the gospel)

          Freedom of mission in popular forms through popular culture

          A church of the people not of the gentry

       1. Waldensians

          "These people do not own houses. they travel in twos, barefoot, with no luggage, placing everything under common ownership, following the example of the apostles. Naked they follow the naked Christ." Walter Map.

          Valdes and the poor men of Lombardy thrown out of the church

          A communal movement that defeated Emperor Frederick (1176)

          A movement of the poor which exposed the responsibility of the rich and powerful for the social evils of the time.

          For Valdes the gospel involved no compromise

          Poverty should be the companion of itinerant preaching. This was a criticism of the daily routine of life.

          Mission leads to service to the poor.

   17. the Mendicant Orders

       A similar birthing

       Accepted by the church

       1. The Franciscans

          Rejection of social structure, accumulation of wealth and its effects on commercial agreements and exchanges of that time.

          Opened the possibility of monastic life to the poor

          Poverty was a condition of itinerant preaching

          Poverty also renews the church, releasing it from the worldly powers, freeing it for the struggle of love between human beings without which no true justice can exist.

          Free community, in a democratic style.

          A vow of poverty was required of its members but the order could own property

          Responses to the Poor: Modern Western Movements

          1. The Wesleyans
             1. Context: Time of urbanization and emerging urban poor. The established church did not deal with the poor.
             2. He was educated. Had a passionate devotion. He was an Anglican priest.
             3. He believed that each group had the gifts needed for ministry. That this would function independent of socio-economic status.
             4. An organizatinal genius. The general rules were for "classes" of about 12. The leader was to visit each person in the classs weekly to enquire, advise, receive the offereing. He then met with the steward (supervisor ) to show the account.
             5. His use of laymen in leadership broke the status barriers. Some of his earliest leaders had no formal education. This gave them status and roles. A class leader could become a deacon, elder or a steward
   18. The Salvation Army

       A breakaway from the Methodists.

       They gave a prominent role to women

       The use of a higlhly regimented structure enabled the poor to function effectively. Poor people need clear structure.

   19. The Modern Missionary Movement
       1. Carey - a powerless person from a powerful culture. This created a dilemma for Carey. Later China had to be swept clean of Western Imperialism before the gospel could be seen as the pearl of great price.
       2. The China Inland Mission - the concept of incarnational living was brought to the fore of missions. Because of living by faith, they lived closely to the people.
   20. Early Pentecostal Movements
       1. Azusa Street was a revival through reconciliation across racial lines. Only later was speaking in tongues defined as the mark of it. in its early days reconciliation was. It gave a prominent role to women.
       2. The Assembly of God in Brazil was begun by two Swedish Pentecostal men who came to Belem. They encouraged their new converts to preach. If a church grew the eader would become a pastor. The whole movement was based around non-formal training for pastors.
   21. Lessons

       A vocation of poverty arose as a response to the poor man of God.

       Missionary existence demanded poverty

       Helping the poor, criticism of riches, willingness to accept poverty were often a protest against the ruling order, a spiritual strike. only radical impoverishment could free the church.

       Denunciation of class structures. A practical response leads to a position of militant and active criticism of unjust structures at a social and economic level as well as gospel confrontation with the powers which maintain them. In those days this involved a Christian confrontation with a Christian order which only sanctified social injustices, the division of society into classes of clergy , masters and servants. The church of Christ must renounce any type of accommodation with authoritarian power. It is a minority community. It is salt.

       Practical solidarity results in popular pedagogy and popular theology. i.e. identification results in poor peoples paterns of preahing and theologizing.

       Incarnation: if you do not live among them, you do not minister among them

       Leadership Selection and Training; Renewal movements have new methods of Selection and traingin.

       Strong sense of community of goods

       Upward Social Mobility; There has to be a pattern of leadership selection that keeeps sending people down.

5. Biblical Theologies That Impact Poverty

   Kingdom Economics - Foundations of Managing Wealth

   1. Introduction
   2. An Integrating Theme: The Kingdom of God
   3. Kingdom Economics in the Old Testament
      1. King of Creation
      2. The Nature of Resources
         1. Fruitfulness
         2. Ownership
      3. The Role of Humanity
      4. Wealth
      5. The Poor
      6. Work and Rest
      7. Jubilee
   4. Kingdom Economics in the New Testament
      1. The King Has Come
      2. The Kingdom Will Come
      3. The New Created Order
      4. Humanity's New Economic Role
      5. The Poor in the Kingdom
      6. Dangers of Wealth and Property
      7. Celebration
      8. The Jerusalem Community as Model
      9. International Redistribution (2 Corinthians 8,9)
      10. Work and Leisure
   5. Practicing Kingdom Concepts Today
      1. Definition of Financial Management
      2. Principles of Management
         1. Giving - the First Principle
         2. Principle of the Ant
         3. Principle of Consistency as a Wise Steward
         4. Principle of Budgeting in Using Resources
         5. Applying These principles Among the Poor
      3. Debts and Lending
         1. Debts
            1. Charitable Loans
            2. Commercial Loans
         2. Partnerships
         3. Applying These Principles

            The Kingdom and Economic Theories

      1. Read Berger, Peter,
      2. Browse Schaeffer, Franky,
         1985 Is Capitalism Christian? Crossway Books
   6. The Nature of Money
      1. Read "The Death of Money", Profiles, May 1993
         1. Money as
            1. a traditional unit storing value
            2. a unit of account
               1. a discrete object such as a piece of copper
               2. a symbolic piece of paper with governmental seal
               3. changes in supply and demand affected relationships between currencies
         2. The Transmogrification of Money
            1. A monetary system
            2. An international electronic network
            3. 20-50 times larger than the real economy.
            4. An unregulated global network
            5. volatile, compressed time frames
         3. The Network Includes
            1. the world's markets
               1. stocks, bonds, futures - need international regulation
               2. currency - the ethics of the floating dollar
                  1. a speculative instrument
                  2. hurt investment in the real economy
                  3. can no longer set export and import prices in advance
               3. interest rate
                  1. stabilized for effective investment
                  2. lower rates and investment will flow into stable industries such as manufacturing
                  3. lower rates and there will be less speculative stocks, more long term stock investments
                  4. this will increase industrial access to capital
               4. options
            2. Federal reserves
            3. Credit card systems
         4. Fundamental Changes in Economic Issues
            1. supply and demand have little to do with price changes
            2. time frames have become compressed
            3. dual economy
               1. "the real economy": real products, real trade, research and services, factory workers , doctors, building roads. Impoverished in the U.S.
               2. "the financial economy" 20 to 50 times larger
         5. The Relationship of the Manufacturing Sector and the Electronic Economy
            1. 20%% directly in manufacturing
            2. 20% in direct services to manufacturing

               Shipping, engineering, consulting, design, insurance etc.

            3. In the U.S. a decade when this economy has swallowed the manufacturing sector, swallowing resources and shifting money into short-term gains.
   7. Ownership
      1. See earlier
      2. Private Property upheld
      3. Communal ownership not a Biblical theme
      4. communal use of private property a Biblical Theme
   8. Production

      "Economy itself is the creation and production of value. Since at its root, value is an expression of spiritual qualities with moral implications, religion which is the promulgation of values , is intimately connected to the economy. From this perspective religion can be seen as supply-side in nature...true economy becomes the active expression of God-derived qualities in human endeavor, including the process by which we give raw matter value and purpose and turn it into economic "goods" (Brooks p27).

      1. Genesis and Jesus: The Godliness of Production
         1. Creativity
         2. Fruitfulness
         3. Management
         4. Parables of the Stewards
      2. Leviticus, 2 Corinthians and Galatians: Production with Social Responsibility
         1. Social Controls to Check Inevitable Inequalities
            1. Limitations to the Production of Wealth
            2. Sabbath: People Oriented Efficiency
            3. Jubilee: Limits to Speculation
            4. Restitution
            5. Forbidding Usury
            6. Periodic Redistribution
            7. Just Transactions at Each Point
         2. Nature of Products
            1. Must Have Intrinsic Value
            2. Due Regard to Social and Ecological Consequences
   9. Consumption
      1. Simplicity as Biblical Model
      2. Bible Studies on Simplicity
      3. How to Live on $100 a Year
      4. How to Live on $2 a day
      5. Kagawa's concept of Levels of consumption related to the senses
   10. Redistribution
       1. The Necessity of Redistribution
          1. Care for the Weak
          2. Overcoming Social and Racial Barriers
          3. Sharing One Another's Burdens
       2. Problems of Taking from the Rich
          1. Imperils Political Liberty
          2. Discourages Productivity
          3. Destroys Knowledge (investment and entrepreneurial knowledge which are key to progress).
       3. Problems of Distributing to the Poor
          1. Debauching the Doler
             1. False view of the poor as noble and competent
             2. Viewing the producers of wealth as the enemy
             3. violent diabolizing of capitalism
          2. Beguiling the Working Poor into Indolence
          3. Enfeebling the Poor
       4. Problems With Definitions
          1. Is redistribution more Christian than production?
          2. Equating distribution with compassion and production with exploitation
   11. Moral Values Fundamental to Functioning Economies
       1. Jesus taught that spiritual values are fundamental to things (Matt. 6:33)
       2. The Protestant Work Ethic (Weber)
       3. "A dollar is not value, but representative of values, and at last of moral values" Ralph Waldo Emerson.
       4. Religious Commitments Have a Direct Bearing on Economic Values (Brookes in Schaeffer p21)
       5. nine Questions on Values and Economic Impact in America (Brookes p23)
   12. The Role of the State
       1. Rapid increase of centralized bureaucracy
          1. In both capitalist and communist societies
          2. With increasing urbanization and
          3. Growth of control technology
          4. All countries have some form of central planning
   13. Limitations To Government
       1. Rules for the Monarchy
       2. Limits to the Dominion of Man over Man
          1. Each Person is Accountable to God
          2. Each Person Has an Immortal Soul
       3. Freedom from Oppression, Civil and Religious Freedom
          1. Liberty The Supreme End to Democracy
          2. Liberty Fundamental to Economic Development
       4. Redistribution by the Welfare State
          1. Problem moving from spiritual dynamics to power politics
          2. Removal of another limitation to the power of the state
          3. Loss of human liberty (hence of economy - the unfolding of ideas)
          4. State becomes the repository of faith
   14. The New International Order
       1. The Interlinked Economy (I L E)
       2. Biblical Prophecy and an Integrated World Economy
       3. The Confusion of Traditional Economics
       4. Fatal Ethical Flaws in Capitalism
          1. Development of Central Banks
          2. The Post War Emergence of the U N , World Bank and I M F
          3. The Emergence of the Centrally Planned Economy
       5. Facilitating internationalization
       6. Facilitating Bureaucratization
   15. The Relationship of the Kingdom and Capitalism
       1. Berger, Peter
          1987 The Capitalist Revolution: Fifty Propositions About Prosperity, Equality and Liberty. Basic Books: N.Y.
       2. Read A Biblical Framework of Development pp. 6-10
          1. What is Capitalism?
             1. Spiritual Causation vs. Materialistic Causation

                "You are not social managers, political leaders or functionaries of a temporal Power.... a soul living in habitual contact with God will know how to care for the poor without surrendering to sociopolitical radicalisms, which in the end are shown to be inopportune and counterproductive. Whatever the miseries of suffering that afflict man, it is not through violence, the interplay of power and political systems, but through the truth concerning man, that he journeys to a better future." John Paul III

             2. The Linear Take Off Theory
             3. Dualism
             4. Dependency
             5. Man the Machine
                1. Man of Infinite Worth
                2. Man is Creative
                3. The Equality of Man
             6. Capitalism, Greed and Contentment
             7. The Development of Entrepreneurs
             8. The Relationship Between Achievement and Righteousness
          2. Capitalism and Christianity
             1. Capitalism not essential for the survival of Christianity
             2. Capitalism has no special claim on Christian virtue
                1. Both Marxism and Capitalism have equally materialistic views - and goals
                2. Capitalism thrives on the freedom also inherent in Christianity
             3. Judeo-Christianity essential to prevent Capitalism from self-destructing.
             4. Capitalism Proven Far Better for the Poor than Communism
                1. Has Worked in some countries not in others
                2. Production of wealth precedes distribution of wealth
          3. Private Ownership
             1. Right to Own Prerequisite to Freedom
             2. But Galbraith indicates that housing will never be fully provided for the poor in a capitalist system.
             3. Most capitalist countries have some form of socialism and redistribution
             4. Biblical Ownership is Tempered by Social Responsibility
          4. Why Has Capitalism Failed in Some Countries
             1. data from Eberstadt, Nick in Schaeffer 1985: 378-9
             1. Industrialization Without Prosperity
                1. Agricultural Development proved key in Western development in overall economic development.
                2. The Ratio of Agricultural Development to Industrial

                   In developing countries many governments sought to bypass agricultural development. e.g. for Peru and Mexico in the early 1980's the % of agriculture was only 8% of GNP. This is only half of Germany in the 1930's.

             2. Investment Without Growth
                1. Similar levels of investment (domestic investment / GNP) in the early 1950's has lead over the 60's and 70's to growing per capita output in Japan (400%), Mauritania (40%), Libya (40%), Congo (20%), Jamaica (13%)
                2. Scale of Economic Mismanagement
                3. Raises question of underlying cultural and religious systems (Berger)
                4. Resultant "debt crisis"
             3. Dependence on Morality

                As Warren Brooks asserts in his essay "Goodness and the GNP", a healthy capitalist economy is in turn dependent on moral standards: "Without the civilizing force of universal moral standards, particularly honesty, trust, self-respect, integrity and loyalty, the marketplace quickly degenerates."

   16. The Relationship of Kingdom and Communism 
       1. Read A Biblical Framework of Development pp. 11-16
          1. What is Marxism?
          2. Inadequate Meaning in History
          3. Class Conflict Inadequacy: Class Struggle vs. Peacemaking
          4. Utopia = Equality, A Zero-sum Inequality
          5. The Biblical View of Property - Lack of Communal Mandate
          6. the Nature of Structural Transformation
   17. Past Christian Syntheses
       1. Read Kagawa Brotherhood Economics
       2. Browse any mateial you can find on Rauschenbusch
       3. Track down info on cooperative development
   18. Summary of Kagawa's Brotherhood Economics
       1. Poverty today
          1. Poverty of plenty/ surplus in hands of few
          2. Masses crushed by unemployment, unrest, dependency and non-credit.
       2. Three failed sources of economic philosophy for reconstruction of society
          1. Materialistic communism
          2. Political socialism -
          3. Credal Christianity - takes no cognizance of economic ethics
       3. Characteristics of Capitalism
          1. Founded on principle of free competieiotn
          2. A system of exploitation
          3. Accumulation of capital
             1. in hands of a few
             2. minority monopolizing
             3. this paralyzes the monetary system (like the circulatory system)
             4. Laboring classes feel this (like the muscular system)
          4. Creation of an upper or leisure class
          5. Concentration of capital means concentration of power
          6. Majority of non-property -owning, poor, wage earners
          7. class struggle
          8. increasing unemployment
       4. New Cooperative Economics
          1. Based on consciousness(Spiritual)
             1. vs Adam's Smith's concept of it being subject to natural controls
             2. e.g. without concept of private property machine civilization would not have created capitalistic management
             3. Full development of the practice of economics will be complete only when human consciousness(spirituality) is fully developed.
       5. Economic Revolution
          1. Must be accomplished be a change in man's consciousness (spiritual life, and social consciousness??).
          2. Revolution of ideas
          3. Concerning wealth and professions
          4. in relationship to property rights, inheritance and rights of contract
          5. These ideas must be organized into the consciousness of the society if economic revolution is to be realized.
       6. Progressions
          1. physical economics and consciousness (food, clothing, housing)
          2. Sense economics
             1. e.g. seeing - results in glasses, cameras, movies, dyes
             2. e.g. touching - sport, sex, regulation of heaat and cold, escape from pain
             3. e.g. hearing - radio, piano, musical instruments etc.
             4. e.g. taste - wine, condiments etc.
          3. Ethico-socio economics and Consciousness
       7. Failure of violent revolution
          1. will fail because it lacks a systematic organization for consumption
          2. Thus neglecting the heart of the monetary sytem.
          3. Mistaken assumption: change of laws will produce economic revolution.
             1. minority monopolizing
             2. this paralyzes the monetary system (like the circulatory system)
             3. Laboring classes feel this (like then muscular system)
             4. Abolishing the circulation will not solve the problem
       8. Economic Cooperation
          1. Founded on consciousness of social solidarity
          2. The Rochdale principles
             1. open, voluntary membership
             2. one member - one vote
             3. limited interest on capital
             4. cash trading
             5. reserves for education
             6. rebates paid on purchases
             7. market price
          3. profits coming from consumption was the new concept
             1. eliminates exploitation
             2. elimintes accunulation in hands of a few
             3. eliminates concentration of capital
             4. does not damage individual capitalists
          4. Non - exploitation and planned economics
          5. requires education and conscious-awakening
          6. The individual (Philanthropic) capitalist cannot match the results which organizaed brotherhood can secure.
       9. Types of Cooperatives
          1. Health and Life insurance
          2. producer cooperatives
          3. marketing cooperatives
          4. for selection of occupation, mutual aid associations
          5. for order, public utility cooperatives
          6. Consumers cooperatives
       10. National and International Confederations

           Theologies of Development - A Wealthy Man's Role in Society

   19. Theologies of Social Change
       1. A World in Accelerating Change
          1. The Academic Focus on Change Dynamics
             1. The emergence of sociology
             2. The emergence of cultural anthropology
          2. The theological move from ethics to social change
             1. e.g. Church growth
             2. e.g. study of NERMS
             3. e.g.Linberation theologies
       2. The Nature of Change
          1. Evolutionary, incremental or revolutionary
          2. Biblical perspectives: repentance, reconciliation, conflict resolution
       3. Eschatology: the goal of change
       4. Involvement in Progressive Causes
          1. " When causes are highly politicized, decisions for involvement inevitably lead to political partisanship... Without a shared world of moral discourse that transcends the divisive issues at hand, however, partisanship slides into dehumanizing polarization." Richard John Neuhaus in "For the World, Against the World" in Schaeffer p 304.
       5. The extent of Human involvement
          1. In the World but not of the World - the Servant Church
          2. In the World and against the World - the Prophetic
          3. Who Brings the change - God or man?
          4. Who sets the agends - the world or the church?
   20. National, Community, Family and Individual Development
       1. Luke 2:52

          Theology of Community Development - Realistic Middle Class Involvement

       1. Read Dyrness, William, Implications of the Kingdom of God for Community Development
   21. What is Development?
       1. Popular term for a pathway to a good future from an impoverished present for
          1. humanity
          2. Creation
          3. At national, international, community and individual levels
       2. Defined as decades of development within the U.N. ethos.
       3. This decade has largely been replaced by the term "empowerment".
   22. Relationship of Kingdom and Development
       1. Most Christian development agencies are built around Kingdom reflections on secular development philosophy?
       2. Should not our rationale for development be in seeking the Kingdom?
   23. Development as an Extension of the Kingdom
       1. The Creation
          1. Is a reflection of God's creative and recreative rule in history
          2. to be a vehicle not a barrier to God's glory
          3. The character of creation was good
          4. So was the process and task man was to carry out
       2. The curse makes the rule of man to be challenged
          1. Sin causes the reign of God to have a restorative redemptive function
       3. In Christ,
          1. evil, spirits, the created order and even death are vanquished
          2. Reconciliation occurs with God and between people
          3. He restores man's dominion over creation
             1. heals sick
             2. quiets storms
             3. helps catch fish
             4. turns water into wine
       4. Builds on the foundational images of the Old Testament of justice , righteousness, and shalom
   24. Kingdom Starting Points for Theologies of Development
       1. Infinite value of each person (Lost sheep parable)
       2. Community responsibility (concepts of loving one another, reconcilitiation, am I my brother's keeper?)
       3. Motivation for change towards a Kingdom vision(repentance, restitution)
       4. Directionality in history, a concept of directional time, of achievement of goals within that time, a spirit of hope (eschatological hope in a future Kingdom that has invaded the present).
       5. The role of humanity in superintending and managing the environment.
       6. The person to person servant roles in the exercise of power.
   25. These are By-products of the Kingdom Present
       1. Thus the establishing of the Kingdom present in people and hence the forming of churches remains the priority activity.
       2. Yet these principles may be recognized and applied outside of the context of formation of Christian communities.
   26. Development from the Center
       1. The incarnation is a major starting point that has been almost totally overlooked by developmental agencies.
       2. As the church is formed among the poor, the incarnate body of Christ moves to greater fulness.
       3. The emergence of inside diaconal leadership is the central point for wise emergence of effective developmental activities.
       4. External resources are needed by the poor but can be disbursed according to the plans of the internal leadership (2 Corinthians 8,9)
   27. Integration of Theology and Practice
       1. e.g. Models of Holistic Development
       2. e.g. What would yourt community look like if the Kingdom was to be fully manifest in it?
   28. Community Development in a Context of Political Oppression?
       1. There are few countries in the world today that are open and democratic societies.
       2. Societies are strengthened by the emergence of small groups be they small entrepreneurial businesses, political cells, or religious groups.
       3. This diffuses power in society
       4. Authoritarian regimes wish to centralize power, and hence are threatened by such emergent groups.
       5. Jesus modelled patterns of diverse response to such totalitarianism -
       6. running away at times,
       7. open confrontation and debate at other times and
       8. silence at others.
       1. We are to be as wise as serpents and harmless as doves.
   29. Theology of Community Organization.
       1. Browse Linthicum, Robert, City of God, City of Satan
          1. Background
             1. Poverty may be perceived primarily as economic, hence c.d. approaches
             2. It may be viewed as an issue of powerlessness and oppression.
             3. This has become the most recent theme in developmental thinking - empowering the poor.
             4. Saul Alinsky in Chicago developed approaches that enabled the poor to unite and use the power of their mass against the power of the oppressors in order to gain their objectives.
             5. This is a useful methodology in certain class conflict situations
             6. His methodology was not derived from Biblical categories.
          2. Opression as a Biblical Category
       2. Browse Assman, Hugo, Theology for a Nomad Church, Maryknoll, Orbis Books
       3. Browse Hanks, Thomas, For God So Loved the Third World, Maryknoll: Orbis
          1. " Anyone who has read much in the theological classics (Augustine, Luther, Calvin, Barth, Berkower et al.), will recognize that the theme of oppression has received little or no attention there... However when we strike the rock of a complete Biblical concordance... we find a basic structural category of biblical theology (Hanks 1983:4).
          2. In Biblical theology oppression is viewed as the basic cause of poverty (164 texts). In the case of the other 15 to 20 causes for poverty indicated in the Old Testament, the linguistic link is much less frequent - not more than 20 times (Hanks 38).
          3. to recognize oppression as the basic cause of poverty inplies the need of a corresponding Christian response that takes into account the fundamental role of liberation and radical soio-structural changes comparable to the Exodus and Jubilee year ( Hanks 39).
          4. James recognizes class struggle as an inevitable dimension of reality: Is it not the rich who oppress you, is it not they who drag you to court? (James 2:6b).
          5. James places himself firmly in the ranks of the prophets who viewed oppression as the basic reason for poverty (2:1-7; 5:1-6). Never does he shift the blame to the poor themselves, because of racial inferiority, laziness, vices or other reasons. The rich bear the basic guilt because they exploit and oppress (Hanks 46).
          6. " An awareness of oppression must be the foundation of any contemporary theology. We are beginning to realize what we are in history: not merely underdeveloped peoples in the sense of not yet sufficiently developed, but peoples kept in a state of underdevelopment: dominated and oppressed peoples - which is a very different thing" (Assman 1976:49)
       4. Urban Poor Perspectives Seminar as Model of Community Organizational Approach to Transforming a Church.

          Theologies of Incarnation - Moving from Riches to Poverty

   30. Chosen Suffering
       1. Chosen Death, Chosen Power
       2. Martyrdom
   31. Incarnation, Economics, Sociology and Politics
   32. A Theology of Non-Destitute Poverty
       1. A Theology of Following
          1. "Imitatio Cristi"
          2. Limits to following
          3. Contrast with Reformed thinking
             1. Historic roots in Assisi, Waldensians, Jesuits, Anabaptists
       2. Blessing and Terrors of Prosperity Theology
          1. Prosperity as promise to the poor
          2. TV Evangelist, nobody preached to him the gospel
       3. Voluntary and Involuntary Poverty
          1. Read Cry Chapter 8: Pilgrimage Among The Poor
   33. Community and Apostolic Orders
       1. Read Grigg: Apostolic Orders
          1. Why Are Catholic Missions Effective Among the Poor?
          2. What Hinders Protestant Missions?
          3. The Knowledge of God as Mission Focus
          4. Jesus of the Poor
          5. Jesus the Apostle
          6. Community: The Body of Jesus
          7. Apostolic Orders - Why?
          8. Jesus, Pioneer of New Communities
          9. Jesus, the Downwardly Mobile

             Theologies of Justice - Exercising Power for the Poor

       2. Read Grigg, Companion, chap 11
       3. Read Notes Economic Justice For the Poor
6. The Poor Speak - Story-Telling Theologies.

   Theologies of Suffering

   1. "Handling Suffering with Joy"
   2. Suffering For the Gospel
   3. Theologies of Hope
   4. Theology in Song

      Theologies Responding to Oppression

   1. The Oppression of Color
   2. The Oppression of Race
      1. Ethnic Cleansing in Mauritania
   3. Psychological Damage of Oppression
   4. Creating Security Through Forming Congregations
      1. Continuing Healing Contexts
      2. Restoring Sense of Extended Family
   5. Restoring Family Structures
      1. Woman as Breadwinner
      2. Beauty & Justice in Traditional Tribal / Peasant Protections, Security and Identity for Women
      3. Injustices in Imposition of Western Individualism for Women
      4. Restoring Male Leadership
      5. Child Gangs
      6. Street Children's Ministry Issues
   6. Handling Widows and Orphans

      Theologies of Communication Among the Poor

      1. "I Forgot My Glasses"
      2. "Denying Ethnic History? We are Brazilians" - Dealing with the Pain of Slavery
      3. Parables as a Way of Multiplying Evangelism
      4. Liturgy
      5. Mass Movements

         Theologies Related To Class Struggle

   7. The Realities of Class Struggles in Cities
      1. Concept of Class Struggle
      2. Difficulties with Marxist Analysis
         1. Duality an inadequate analysis of City structure
         2. limited conflict areas in cities
      3. Nature of Urban Class Conflicts

         Theologies of Land Rights

   8. Pastoral Situation: The Worldwide Extent of Dispossession
   9. The Fruits of Landlessness
      1. The first need before any development can occur
   10. The land in the scriptures
       1. Grigg: The Kingdom of God and Land Rights paper
       2. Land Rights stories in Together magazine
       3. Grigg: Land Rights reader
7. Practical Theology of Urban Poor Church-Planting

   Entrance Issues (Matthew 10)

   1. Enter! the man of peace
      1. Read Cry Chap 9
         1. Compassionate Intercession
         2. Entrance Through A Man of Peace
         3. Incarnation - Becoming One of the Poor
         4. Acceptable Roles
         5. Winning Hearts
   2. Patterns of proclamation
      1. Read Cry Chap 10: Patterns Of Proclamation
         1. Before He Comes, Go Quickly!
         2. Opposition
   3. Works of the Spirit of God (Luke 4:18)
      1. Read Cry Chap 11
         1. Evangelism With Power
         2. Anointed With Authority
            1. Hindrances to the Anointing of God
         3. Confrontations of Power
         4. The Spirit and Justice for the Poor

            Poor People's Ecclesiology

   4. Biblical theology for poor peoples' churches
      1. Read Cry Chap 12
         1. Chief Ends of Man
         2. The Church - Declaration of Christ
         3. Point of Focus Among the Poor
   5. Discipling Structures for squatter Churches
      1. Read Cry Chap 13
         1. Three Structures for the Poor
         2. Four Seasons of Growth (1 John 2:12-14)
         3. Holistic Poor Peoples' Churches
         4. Physical Need and Spiritual Growth
   6. The Anthropology of Squatter Churches
      1. Read Cry Chap 14, 15
         1. Peasants in Cities
         2. Three Types of Society
         3. Theological Views of Church and Culture
         4. The Church in a Transitional Culture
         5. Squatter Church Characteristics
         6. 70 Characteristics from the "Culture of Poverty"
   7. Squatter Culture And The Church
      1. Read Cry Chap 16
      2. Read Oscar Lewis The Culture of Poverty, Scientific American, Oct. 1966
         1. The Context that Generates the Culture of Poverty
         2. Limitations of Lewis' Theory
         3. Disengagement from the Larger Society
         4. An Alternative Economic System
         5. Low Level of Organization
         6. Disengagement in Marriage Values
         7. Shortened Childhood
         8. Psychological Characteristics
         9. Conclusions
   8. Pastoring the Poor
      1. Read Cry Chap 14
      2. Browse Craig Ellison
         1. Pacing Holiness for New Converts
         2. The Centrality of the Home
         3. Practical Hints for Pastors
            1. Momentum
            2. Breaking Social Barriers
            3. Celebration
            4. Public Reputation
            5. Establishing the Legal Structure
         4. Pastoral Issues
            1. The Family
            2. Psychological Problems
            3. An Oppressed People
         5. Living On No Man's Land
         6. Exercising Discipline
         7. What of the Attrition Rate?
         8. Economic Factors and Church Growth
            1. Redemption and Lift
      3. Read McGavran Understanding Church Growth chap
         1. Support of Pastors
         1. Emotional and Physical Disability
         2. Breaking the Property Barrier

            Apostolic Development: Growing Movements

   9. From Churches to Movements
      1. Read Cry Chap 17
         1. Man, Mission, Movement
         2. Integration of Educated Elite and Poor Ministries
         3. Developing a Catechism
         4. The Seed Grows
         5. The Worth of an Individual
   10. Leadership for Multiplying Movements
       1. Read Cry Chap 18
          1. Leadership Roles for the Emerging Church
          2. Is Living Among the Poor Necessary?
          3. Training of Leadership
          4. Building a Team
   11. Developing Church-Planting Teams
       1. Read Cry Chap 19
          1. Leadership and Authority
          2. Problems of Teams
          3. Role of Church-Planter at Each Phase

             Diaconal Growth: Dealing with Poverty

   12. Help! Help! I'm Dying!
       1. Read Cry Chap 20
          1. Bread for the Poor or Bread and the Bread of Life?
          2. Traditional Responses
             1. Community Development
             2. Community Organization

                Alinsky, Saul
                1969 Reveille for Radicals New York: Vintage Books.

          3. 9 Steps in Community Organization
             1. Entrance
                1. 5 Roles
                2. Earned / Ascribed Status
                3. Covenant with other leaders / Legal Protection
             2. Networking
                1. To elected leaders
                2. Identifying natural leaders
             3. Definition (God's Intentions)
                1. Luke 2:52 Presentation
             4. Planning Committee
             5. Single Project
                1. manageable size
                2. reasonable probability of success
             6. Reflection-Action Cycle
             7. Leadership Emergence
             8. Multiplier Effect
             9. Community Transformation
                1. Critique of Alinsky's Approaches
          4. Three Movements to Impact Squatter Poverty
          5. How the Poor Escape Poverty
             1. Mutual Aid Associations
                1. The Rochdale Principles
                2. e.g. Tatalon revolving loan fund
                3. Problems with cooperatives
             2. Functioning Roles as Middlemen
             3. Migration as a Solution to Poverty
             4. Education - the Way Out
          6. Middle Class Solutions to Poverty
             1. Poor People's Banks
       2. Read Asiaweek Nov 1, 1985, Proving the Poor Aren't a Poor Credit Risk
          1. Grameen Bank Experiment
             1. to obtain loans must be group of five
             2. whole group is made liable
             3. repaid on a weekly basis
             4. bank goes to the people
             5. helps the poor plan their savings
             6. 40% of bank stock owned by poor who have been helped
          1. Businesses to Lift the Poor from Poverty

             Bruce Kirchhoff, Prof. of entrepreneurship at New Jersey Institute of Technology quoted in the Christian Science Monitor Spiking Stereotypes About Small Firms May 7, 1993 tells us only 18% of small businesses fail during the first 8 years, 28% voluntarily terminate without loss to creditors, 28% survive with their original owners and 26% survive with a change of ownership. Larger start ups with 4 or more employees, are twice as likely to survive for eight years.

             1. Go With Industrialization
                1. not agriculture or handicrafts
                2. but agricultural processing of food, clothing
                3. move into developing sectors such as electronics, welding, computers
                4. all require training in basic bookkeeping skills.
          2. Cooperatives - Means of Economic Uplift
          3. Political Confrontation
          1. Philosophical Issues in Development
             1. Personalized not programmed
             2. Development from the Center
             3. Priorities the poor Perceive
             4. Expected Percentage of Failure
             5. Community Involvement
             6. The Multiplier Effect
          2. Patterns - Development of a Diaconal Team
             1. example of a Diaconal Meeting
          3. Roles of Missionaries, Elders, Diaconates
   13. The Role of the Rich Church in Fighting Poverty
       1. Read Cry Chap 21
          1. Transfer of Capital and Expertise
          2. Simplicity as a Biblical Lifestyle for the Rich
          3. Confrontation with Injustice

             Finale

8. Shorter Bibliography

   Limited to some of the major texts used in the field. More detailed references can be obtained from the footnotes of Cry of the Urban Poor and Companion to the Poor.

   Abrams, C.
   1964 Man's Struggle for Shelter in an Urbanizing World. MIT Press.

   Alinsky, Saul
   1969 Reveille for Radicals New York: Vintage Books.

   Berger, Peter
   1987 The Capitalist Revolution: Fifty Propositions About Prosperity, Equality and Liberty. Basic Books: N.Y.

   Berger, Peter and Brigitte Berger and Hansfried Kellner
   1974 The Homeless Mind: Modernization and Consciousness. Vintage Books.

   Booth, William
   1890 In Darkest England and the Way Out. Salvation Army.

   Brandon, Richard Duane
   1981 Culture and Poverty. Unpublished Thesis, Pasadena: Fuller School of World Mission.

   Brueggemann, Walter
   1977 The Land. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.

   Building Together Assoc. and NHA, Thailand
   l984 The Right to Stay: The Poor, The Land and The Law in Asian Cities. Building Together Notes from a seminar held January 26, 1984

   CASA
   1984 Calcutta Slums: Problems and Challenges. CASA, 5 Russell Street, Calcutta 700071.

   Centre for Urban Studies
   1983 Slums in Dhaka City. Centre of Urban Studies, Dept. of Geography, University of Dhaka.
   
   1982 The People of Dacca. Centre of Urban Studies, Dept. of Geography, University of Dhaka.

   Cherupallikat, Justinian O.F.M. Cap
   1975 Witness Potential of Evangelical Poverty In India. Nouvelle Review de science missionaire, CH-6405 Immensee, Switzerland.

   Chowdhuri, B
   1983 "Bank Finance for Slum Dwellers in Calcutta Metropolitan District" in Calcutta Slums. pp. 130-132. CASA.

   Clinard, M.D.
   1966 Slums and Community Development. N.Y.: Free Press.

   Cook, William
   1982 The Expectation of the Poor: a Protestant Missiological Study of the Catholic "Communidades de Base" in Brazil. Ph.D. Dissertation, Fuller Theological Seminary.

   Davies, Cyril
   1960 Kagawa. Epworth, available from Lingua House.

   Davies, William
   1974 The Gospel and the Land. Berkeley:University of California Press.

   Dawson, John
   1989 Taking Our Cities For God. Creation House.

   de Sta. Ana, Julio
   1977 Good News to the Poor. Geneva: WCC

   Dorr, Donal
   1983 Option for the Poor: A Hundred Years of Vatican Social Teaching. Orbis.

   Dwyer, D.J.
   1967 The Southeast Asian City. London: Bell and Son.

   Dye, Wayne
   1982 Three Types of Cultural System. Unpublished paper. Fuller Theological Seminary.

   Eames, Edwin and Judith Graniche Goode
   1977 Anthropology of the City. Prentice-Hall.

   Ellison, Craig and Maynard, Edward
   1992 Healing for the City, Zondervan

   Ellul, Jacques
   1977 The Meaning of the City. Eerdmans. First published 1970.

   Foster, George
   1973 Traditional Societies and Technological Change. Harper and Row.

   Freire, Paulo
   1986 Pedagogy of the Oppressed. tr. Myra Bergman Ramos. New York:Continuum.

   Galbraith, John Kenneth
   c 1971 The Nature of Mass Poverty. Penguin
   
   1977 The Age of Uncertainty British Broadcasting Corporation.

   Gerlach, L.P. and V. H. Hein:
   1970 People, Power, Change: Movements of Social Transformation. N.Y: Bobbs-Merrill Co.

   Gheddo, Piero
   1973 Why is the Third World Poor. Maryknoll

   Grant, George
   1988 Bringing in the Sheaves, Wolgemuth & Hyatt, P.O. Box 1941, Brentwood, Tennessee
   
   1987 The Dispossessed: Homelessness in America, Crossway Books
   
   1986 In the Shadow of Plenty: Biblical Principles of Welfare and Poverty, Thomas Nelson.

   Greenway, Roger
   1973 An Urban Strategy for Latin America. Baker Book House.
   
   1992 Discipling the City (2nd ed.), Baker Book House.

   Grigg, Viv
   1991 Companion to the Poor. MARC (tr. into Portuguese 1988 by Ehud Garcia as Servos Entre os Pobres. Comibam and Editoria Vida Livraria. Also in Korean (1991). In German (1990) as Mit Den Armen Leben)
   
   1986 A Strategy to Reach the Urban Poor of the World's Mega-Cities. Urban Leadership Foundation.
   
   l986 The Kingdom of God and Land Rights. Unpublished paper. Urban Leadership Foundation.
   
   1986 SERVANTS:A Protestant Missionary Order With Vows of Simplicity and Non-Destitute Poverty. Urban Leadership Foundation.
   
   1987 "Sorry, the Frontier Moved!" In Urban Mission, Vol. 4 Number 4 March 1987.
   
   1989 "Squatters: The Most Responsive Unreached Bloc" In Urban Mission,Volume 6 Number 5, May 1989.
   
   1992 Cry of the Urban Poor. MARC.

   Hanks, Thomas
   1983 For God So Loved the Third World. Maryknoll, N.Y: Orbis (Has some major exegesis of the concepts related to oppression in the scriptures, with some bias to liberationists themes).

   Harrington, Micheal
   1965 The Other America: Poverty in the United States. Penguin. 1st ed. 1963.

   Hesselgrave, David
   1980 Planting Churches Cross-Culturally. Baker Book House.

   Hoselitz, Bert F.
   1953 "The Role of Cities in the Economic Growth of Underdeveloped Countries." The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. lxi.
   
   1957 "Urbanization and Economic Growth in Asia." Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 6, Oct. 1957.

   Jacobs, Jane
   1985 "Cities and the Wealth of Nations." Vintage. Excerpted in The Atlantic Monthly, March and April 1984.
   
   1985 Cities and the Wealth of Nations. Vintage.

   Jocano, F.Landa
   1975 Slum As a Way of Life. Manila: New Day Publishers, Box 167, Quezon City 3008.

   Johnston, Micheal A.
   1975 Squatter Settlements in South-East Asia - an Overview. Working Papers in Comparative Sociology #5, University of Auckland, Dept. of Sociology.
   
   1979 "Urban Squatters: Unconventional Housing in Peninsular Malaysia." In Journal of Tropical Geography, Vol. 49, Dec. 1979.

   Juppenlatz, Morris
   1970 Cities in Transformation. University of Queensland Press.

   Kagawa, Toyohiko
   1936 Brotherhood Economics. New York and London:Harper and Brothers. Excerpts summarized also in a publication by the same name. NASCO, P.O.Box 7293, Ann Arbor, MI 48107.

   Kenrick, Bruce
   1965 Come Out the Wilderness. Fontana.

   Keyes, William J.
   1983 Approaches to Financing of Unconventional Housing, Informal Systems of Financing. Regional Seminar on Financing of Low Income Housing, Asian Development Bank, Manila.

   Lausanne Occasional Papers
   1980 Christian Witness to the Urban Poor #22. Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, PO Box 1100, Wheaton, Illinois 60187, USA.

   Lewis Oscar
   1959 Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty. N.Y: Basic Books.
   
   1961 The Children of Sanchez, Autobiography of a Mexican Family. N.Y.: Random House.
   
   1965 La Vida: A Puerto Rican Family in the Culture of Poverty. San Juan and New York: Vintage Books.
   
   1966 "The Culture of Poverty." Scientific American Vol. 215, No 4:3-9, October 1966.
   
   1973 "The Possessions of the Poor." In Cities, Their Origin,Growth and Human Impact, Readings from Scientific American. W. H. Freeman and Co: San Francisco

   Lloyd, Peter
   1979 Slums of Hope? Shanty Towns in the Third World. Hammondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin.

   Maglaya, Felipe E.
   1978 Organizing People for Power. Asian Committee for People's Organization, 2-3-18 Nishi-Waseda, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160, Japan.

   Mangin, William
   l967 "Squatter Settlements." Scientific American. Vol. 2l7 No. 4, October 1967, pp. 2l-29.
   
   1970 Peasants in Cities: Readings in Anthropology of Urbanization. Boston:Houghton Mifflen.

   Mar, Matos
   1977 Los Barriadas de Lima, 1957. 2nd ed. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Horacio Urteaga 694, Lima 11.

   Martens, Elmer
   1981 God's Design: A Focus on Old Testament Theology. Grand Rapids:Baker Book House.

   Maslow, A.H.
   1954 Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row.

   McAlpine, Thomas
   1991 Facing the Powers, MARC. (A summary and integrative analysis of the major theologies of spiritual powers and how we are to respond to them).

   McGavran, Donald A.
   1980 Understanding Church Growth. Eerdmans (This earlier edition of the classic has three chapters inter-relating the issues of poverty and church growth).

   Mumford, Lewis
   1951 The City in History. Harcourt, New York: Brace and World.

   Myrdal, Gunnar
   1968 Asian Drama: An Inquiry into the Poverty of the Nations. Twentieth Century Fund (abridged edition by Vintage Books in 1971)

   Neighbour, Ralph
   1988 The Shepherd's Guidebook. Torch Outreach Ministries, Inc., P.O. Box 19888, Houston, Texas 77224.

   Palen, J. John
   1981 The Urban World. McGraw-Hill Book Co.

   Pentecost, Edward C.
   c1979 Reaching the Unreached. Fuller School of World Missions thesis, Pasadena.

   Perkins, John
   1982 With Justice For All. Ventura:Regal Books.

   Perlman, Janice E.
   1976 The Myth of Marginality, Urban Poverty and Politics in Rio de Janiero. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press.

   Phongpaichit, Pasuk
   1984. From Peasant Girls to Bangkok Masseuses. International Labour Organization, Publications Branch, CH1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland.

   Pornchokchai, Sopon
   1984 House-Renters in Bangkok Slum and Squatter Settlements with Reference to 480 Existing Settlements. Building Together Association.
   
   1985 1020 Bangkok Slums:Evidence, Analysis, Critics. School of Urban Community Research and Actions, 688/56 Jaransanitwong 68, Bangplad, Bangkok Noi, Bangkok 10700, Thailand. Available from World Vision.

   Pullinger, Jackie
   1980 Chasing the Dragon, Hodder and Stoughton.

   Rainwater, Lee and Yancey Wm.
   1967 The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy. Cambridge, Ma: M.I.T. Press.

   Rauschenbusch, Walter
   1917 A Theology for a Social Gospel, New York: Harper.

   Redfield, Robert and Milton Singer
   1969(54) "The Cultural Role of Cities." In Classic Essays on the Culture of Cities. N.Y: Meredith.
   
   1969(47) "The Folk Society." In Classic Essays on the Culture of Cities. N.Y: Meredith.

   Rossi, peter H.
   1989 Down and Out in America: The Origins of Homelessness, University of Chicago Press

   Sanchez, Abelardo, Raul Guerrero, Julio Calderon, Luis Olivera
   1986 Tugurizacion en Lima Metropolitana. Centro de Estudios y Promocion del Deserollo. Av. Salaverry 1945 Lima 14.

   Santos, Milton
   1979 The Shared Space. tr. from Portuguese edition (1975) by Chris Gerry. Methuen:London and New York. 266 pp.
   
   1979 Pobreza Urbana. Estudos Urbanos. Editora Brasiliense: S.P.

   Siddiqui, M.K.A.
   1969 "Life in the Slums of Calcutta." Economic and Political Weekly, Dec l3, l969 pp.l9l7-l92l.
   
   1982 Aspects of Society and Culture in Calcutta. M.K.A.Siddiqui ed. Anthropological Society of India.

   Sjoberg, G.
   1960 The Preindustrial City, Past and Present. Free Press.

   Society of Saint Francis
   1986 The Third Order: Principles and Rule. American Province, The Society of Saint Francis.

   Todaro, Michael P.
   1981 Economic Development in the Third World, 2nd ed.New York: Longman.

   Tonna, Benjamin
   1982 Gospel for the Cities. Orbis Books.

   United Nations Dept. of International Social and Economic Affairs
   1977 The Aging of the Slums and Uncontrolled Settlements. New York: United Nations.
   
   1984 "City Populations, 1950-2000" in Patterns of Urban and Rural Population Growth, 1980. Population Studies #68.
   
   1984 "The Family in Rural and Urban Settings." In Patterns of Urban and Rural Population Growth, 1980.
   
   1985 Compendium of Human Settlements Statistics 1983. 4th Edition.

   Valentine, C.A.
   1968 Culture and Poverty: Critique and Counter Proposals. Chicago University Press.

   Weber, Adna Ferrin
   1899 The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.

   Weber, Max
   1958(21) The City. N.Y: The Free Press.
   
   n.d. The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism tr. Talcott Parsons. Unwin:London

   Winters, Ralph
   1979 Protestant Mission Societies: The American Experience. William Carey Library, 1705 N. Sierra Bonita Avenue, Pasadena, CA91104.

   Wirth, Louis
   1938 "Urbanism as a Way of Life," American Journal of Sociology, 44:1-24, July 1938.

© Viv Grigg & Urban Leadership Foundationand other materials © by various contributors & Urban Leadership Foundation,  for The Encarnacao Training Commission.  Last modified: July 2010